India’s natural vegetation showcases a remarkable harmony with the country’s diverse landforms and climatic patterns. The relationship between vegetation and geography is so well balanced that when maps of annual rainfall and altitude are compared, the distribution of vegetation types across India becomes strikingly clear.
The current vegetation cover in India has evolved over a long span of time. According to palaeobotanists, most Himalayan and peninsular regions are covered with native or endemic plant species, while the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Thar Desert are home to flora that largely originated elsewhere. Many species have migrated from the Trans-Himalayan areas, such as Tibet and China, and are classified as boreal vegetation. Similarly, plants that came from neighbouring tropical regions are termed palaeo-tropical. North African species have influenced the vegetation of India’s semi-arid zones, including parts of the Great Plains and the Thar Desert, while the flora from Indo-Malaysian regions has shaped the lush greenery of India’s north-eastern hills. This exchange of plant species—both intentional and accidental—continues to grow with increased global connectivity through sea and air routes.
Among these immigrant species, some have become invasive weeds. Thriving in tropical climates with ample sunlight and moisture, they multiply rapidly due to the absence of natural predators. Over time, their removal becomes difficult as they take over land, restrict the growth of economically valuable plants, and pose health hazards by promoting the spread of diseases. Notable examples include lantana and water hyacinth—both originally introduced as ornamental plants. Lantana now overruns forest and pasture areas, while water hyacinth clogs rivers, lakes, and ponds, earning the notorious name ‘terror of Bengal’ due to its uncontrolled spread in the region. It continues to choke water bodies across much of India.
From this, it becomes evident that much of India’s so-called natural vegetation is, in fact, altered by human activity—except in remote parts of the Himalayas and the deep Thar Desert. Over the centuries, widespread settlement and land use have depleted and degraded much of the original flora. Today, the term ‘natural vegetation’ refers to plant communities that have remained undisturbed for long periods, allowing species to adapt naturally to surrounding geo-climatic conditions.
Forest Area in India
India’s Environment, Forest and Climate Change Minister, Shri Bhupender Yadav, has unveiled the India State of Forest Report 2023 (ISFR 2023) at the Forest Research Institute in Dehradun. Published every two years since 1987 by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), the ISFR delivers a detailed assessment of the country’s forests, combining satellite imagery with field data from the National Forest Inventory. This eighteenth edition offers extensive insights into India’s forest and tree resources, including coverage, mangroves, growing stock, carbon reserves, and information on forest fires and agroforestry initiatives.
Key Highlights and National Coverage
The latest ISFR shows India’s total forest and tree cover now stands at 8,27,357 sq km, covering 25.17% of the nation’s land area. Of this, forest cover makes up 7,15,343 sq km (21.76%) and tree cover accounts for 1,12,014 sq km (3.41%). Compared to the 2021 assessment, India has witnessed a notable increase of 1,445 sq km in total forest and tree cover, with the majority—1,289 sq km—attributed to expanded tree cover.
Regional Progress and State Rankings
The Regional Progress and State Rankings from the India State of Forest Report 2023 (ISFR 2023) are based on the latest national data:
| Category | Top States | Area (sq km) / % |
| States with Largest Forest and Tree Cover | 1. Madhya Pradesh 2. Arunachal Pradesh 3. Maharashtra | 85,724 sq km 67,083 sq km 65,383 sq km |
| States with Largest Forest Cover (by area) | 1. Madhya Pradesh 2. Arunachal Pradesh 3. Chhattisgarh | 77,073 sq km 65,882 sq km 55,813 sq km |
| States with Highest Forest Cover (by % of area) | 1. Lakshadweep 2. Mizoram 3. Andaman & Nicobar Islands | 91.33% 85.34% 81.62% |
| States Showing Maximum Increase (Forest & Tree Cover) | 1. Chhattisgarh 2. Uttar Pradesh 3. Odisha 4. Rajasthan | 684 sq km 559 sq km 559 sq km 394 sq km |
| States Showing Maximum Increase (Forest Cover Only) | 1. Mizoram 2. Gujarat 3. Odisha | 242 sq km 180 sq km 152 sq km |
This table represents the key state-level progress and rankings that highlight both spatial expansion and percentage contribution of forests and trees according to ISFR 2023.
Special Features: Mangroves, Carbon and Bamboo
India’s mangrove cover has reached 4,992 sq km. The overall growing stock of forests and trees outside forests is now estimated at 6,430 million cubic metres (cum), an increase of 262 million cum since the last assessment. Notably, the bamboo-bearing area stands at 1,54,670 sq km, marking an uptick of 5,227 sq km since 2021. The estimated annual timber production from trees outside forests is 91.51 million cum.
Regarding climate commitments, India’s forest carbon stock is now estimated at 7,285.5 million tonnes, up by 81.5 million tonnes since the previous report. The total carbon stock, representing a sink of 30.43 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent, demonstrates India’s substantial progress towards its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) pledge under the Paris Agreement.
Supporting Policy and Conservation
The ISFR is an invaluable resource for policymakers, government agencies, academic institutions, and conservationists, offering the data necessary for effective management and preservation of India’s forests and natural resources. This report not only tracks progress but also guides future strategy for environmental sustainability.
Classification of Forests
The classification of Indian forests was first systematically done by Sir H.G. Champion in 1936. He categorised the forests into eleven primary types based on characteristics such as climate, species composition, and physiognomy. These main categories provide a foundational framework for understanding India’s diverse forest ecosystems and have been widely referenced and built upon in subsequent forest research and management:
1. Tropical Evergreen Forests
Tropical evergreen forests thrive in regions receiving over 150 cm of annual rainfall, with temperatures ranging between 25°C and 27°C. They are concentrated in North-East India, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of the Western Ghats, upper Assam, the lower Eastern Himalayan slopes, Orissa, and the Bhabhar–Tarai belt along the Himalayan foothills.
Where rainfall exceeds 250 cm, these forests become dense, featuring towering trees up to 45 metres high, entangled with epiphytes, parasites, lianas, and rattans, forming a lush green canopy. The multi-layered vegetation structure makes them appear like a green carpet from above. The trees are evergreen as they do not shed leaves seasonally.
The forest floor lacks grass due to heavy shade, but palms, bamboos, ferns, and creepers are abundant, making movement difficult. Prominent species include white cedar, toon, dhup, palaquium, hopea, mesua, collophyllum, canes, gurjan, chaplas, agor, muli, and bamboo. These forests remain largely underexploited due to their inaccessibility.
In regions where rainfall ranges between 200 cm and 250 cm and temperature averages 24°C–27°C, tropical evergreen forests give way to semi-evergreen forests, found along the Western Ghats, upper Assam, the Himalayan slopes, and Orissa. Key tree varieties include aini, semul, gutel, hopea, rosewood, champa, kadam, haldu, mesua, and laurel.
2. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Tropical moist deciduous forests, also known as monsoon forests, flourish in areas receiving 100–200 cm of annual rainfall. Dominant tree species include teak (Tectona grandis) and sal (Shorea robusta). These forests cover large portions of the Sahyadris, north-eastern peninsular India, and the Himalayan foothills.
They are characterised by tall teak and sal trees growing close together, with bamboos and shrubs forming dense undergrowth. Economically important species such as sandalwood (Santalum album), shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), hurra (Terminalia chebula), and khair (Acacia catechu) add significant commercial value.
3. Tropical Thorn Forests
Tropical thorn forests represent the degraded form of moist deciduous forests and are found where annual rainfall is between 75 cm and 100 cm, with an average temperature of 16°C–22.5°C.
These forests are spread across Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kachchh, and parts of the Deccan plateau. Key species include acacia, khair, palas, kokko, cacti, dhaman, tamarix, euphorbias, and wild palms, which have evolved to survive in arid conditions.
4. Sub-Tropical Montane Forests
Sub-tropical montane forests occur in regions with 100–200 cm of annual rainfall and temperatures between 15°C and 22°C. Found in the north-western Himalayas (excluding Ladakh and Kashmir), Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh, these forests are dominated by chir pine, with broad-leaved trees like oak, jamun, and rhododendron also prevalent.
5. Dry Deciduous Forests
Dry deciduous forests grow where annual rainfall averages 100–150 cm. They possess moderately dense, uneven canopies allowing sunlight to reach the ground, encouraging grasses and climbers.
Main species include acacia, jamun, modesta, and pistacia. Grasses and shrubs emerge predominantly during the monsoon months, giving these forests a seasonal appearance.
6. Himalayan Moist Forests
Himalayan moist forests extend through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and northern West Bengal at altitudes of 1,000–2,000 metres. These forests showcase dense, dark-green coniferous vegetation.
Key tree species include oak, chestnut, chir pine, and sal, interspersed with shrubs and nutrient-rich grasses that sustain high-altitude fauna.
7. Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
Found across Jammu and Kashmir, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur (in Himachal Pradesh), and Sikkim, the Himalayan dry temperate forests are conifer-dominant ecosystems. Important trees include deodar, oak, chilgoza, maple, ash, olive, mulberry, willow, celtis, and parrotia. Shrubs also populate these forests, forming a hardy vegetation system adapted to cold, dry conditions.
8. Montane Wet Temperate Forests
Montane wet temperate forests stretch across the Himalayas from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh, between 1,500 and 3,300 metres in altitude. Here, temperatures range between 12°C and 15°C, with annual rainfall between 100 cm and 250 cm.
Common trees include oak, fir, spruce, deodar, magnolia, chestnut, cedar, kail, yew, and silver fir. Lush undergrowth of ferns, creepers, and shrubs contributes to the forest’s ecological richness and the durability of its timber.
9. Alpine and Sub-Alpine Forests
These forests occupy elevations between 2,500 and 3,500 metres along the Himalayas. They are composed of dwarf conifers and dense alpine grasses that flourish in summer.
Typical vegetation includes spruce, fir, yew, birch, honeysuckle, artemisia, potentilla, and hardy alpine shrubs, supporting a diverse high-altitude ecosystem.
10. Desert Vegetation
Desert vegetation is confined to arid regions west of the Aravalli Hills in Rajasthan and northern Gujarat. With less than 50 cm of annual rainfall and extreme temperature fluctuations, these areas support hardy xerophytic plants.
Prominent species include acacia, khejra, cacti, jhar, kanju, and wild palms—each adapted to conserve water and withstand intense heat.
11. Tidal (Mangrove) Forests
Mangrove forests flourish along India’s coastal regions, notably in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kachchh, Kathiawar, and the Gulf of Khambhat. Found in tidal zones, these coastal forests adapt to saline waters and fluctuating tides.
The mangrove tree, growing up to 30 metres, is widely used as fuelwood. The Sundarbans Delta is renowned for its Sundri (Heritiera minor) trees, which provide durable timber for construction and boat building. Screw-pines thrive on higher grounds, while palms and epiphytes dominate coastal creeks, forming one of India’s most distinctive coastal ecosystems.
For More Readings: SOILS IN INDIA | SOIL CONSERVATION | Agri UDAAN | GREEN REVOLUTION