FLORISTIC REGIONS OF INDIA

India’s diverse flora varies remarkably across its geographical and climatic zones, changing from region to region and with differences in altitude. In 1937, botanist C.C. Calder classified the country into eight distinct floristic regions, namely:

I. Eastern Himalayan Region II. North-Western Himalayan Region III. Assam Region IV. Gangetic Plain V. Indus Plain VI. Deccan Region VII. Malabar Region VIII. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

I. Eastern Himalayan Region

Stretching across the hilly landscapes of Sikkim, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh, this region is characterised by rolling mountains that receive an average annual rainfall exceeding 200 cm. It supports an impressive diversity of over 4,000 plant species, ranging from tropical to temperate and alpine types. Prominent trees include sal, oak, chestnut, magnolia, pyrus, bamboo, silver fir, pine, birch, rhododendrons, and various alpine grasses. This floristic region is further classified into five distinct types.

1. Himalayan Subtropical Broadleaf Forests

Occupying altitudes between 500 and 1,000 metres along the Outer Himalayan Range, Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests experience rainfall that varies from east to west, reaching up to 2,000 mm annually. The Himalayas trap monsoon moisture carried from the Bay of Bengal, creating lush, green ecosystems.

Flora

Fauna

This ecoregion hosts diverse plant communities influenced by complex terrain, varied soil types, and differing rainfall patterns—from the drier western slopes to the wetter eastern ones. Its position on the southern Himalayan slopes allows a mix of flora and fauna from both the Indomalayan and Palearctic biogeographic realms. Distinct forest types include Dodonaea scrub, subtropical dry evergreen forests of Olea cuspidata, northern dry mixed deciduous forests, Siwalik sal forests, moist mixed deciduous forests, wet hill forests, and semi- to fully evergreen tropical forests.

The region supports several threatened mammals such as the Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, clouded leopard, smooth-coated otter, gaur, Sumatran serow, Irrawaddy squirrel, and particoloured flying squirrel. The endemic golden langur inhabits the broadleaf forests north of the Brahmaputra River, confined to a limited range.

2. Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf Forests

Found at mid-elevations between 2,000 and 3,000 metres, the Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests form a temperate ecoregion along steep Himalayan slopes. Renowned for their biodiversity, these forests are particularly rich in oaks and rhododendrons, featuring numerous endemic species of Indomalayan, Indochinese, Himalayan, Eastern Asiatic, and Gondwanan origin.

Flora

Two main forest types dominate: evergreen and deciduous. Evergreen forests are defined by various oak species, while deciduous forests feature Himalayan maple, Juglans regia, Alnus nepalensis, Betula utilis, Betula alnoides, and Echinocarpus dasycarpus.

3. Eastern Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests

These temperate coniferous forests extend across the middle and upper elevations of the Eastern Himalayas, from the Gandaki River in Nepal through Bhutan to Arunachal Pradesh, between 3,000 and 4,000 metres. They mark the transition between the Indomalayan zone in the south and the Palearctic zone in the north, forming the last forest belt below the Himalayan treeline.

Flora	Fauna
The forests are typically found on steep, rocky, north-facing slopes. Characteristic species include Abies spectabilis, Juniperus recurva, and Tsuga dumosa in humid areas, with Pinus wallichiana prevalent in drier zones near Tibet. Juniper woodlands flourish in sheltered river valleys, often mingled with willows (Salix) and wild cherry (Prunus) trees.	Around eighty-nine mammal species inhabit this ecoregion, including civets, martens, Himalayan tahr, and muntjac. The endangered red panda and white-bellied musk deer, hunted for its valuable musk, are key inhabitants, thriving in bamboo-covered understoreys beneath the fir trees at elevations between 3,000 and 4,000 metres.

4. Eastern Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows

Located between the tree line and the snow line, at elevations of roughly 4,000 to 5,500 metres, the Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadow ecoregion consists of montane grasslands and shrublands. Permanent snow and ice occur above 5,500 metres.

Flora	Fauna
Lower alpine zones near the treeline are dominated by rhododendron shrubs, whose species composition evolves along the range from west to east. These hardy shrubs give the slopes a colourful bloom during the brief summer.	Common large mammals include the snow leopard, Himalayan blue sheep (Bharal), Himalayan tahr, takin, musk deer, goral, and serow. Smaller species such as Himalayan marmots, pikas, and weasels also thrive in these high-altitude grasslands.

5. North-Eastern Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests

Located in northern and eastern Arunachal Pradesh, this temperate coniferous ecoregion occupies the mid to upper elevations of the eastern Himalayas.

Flora	Fauna
Dominant species include Tsuga dumosa, Picea smithiana, and Abies spp. The world’s highest-altitude forest occurs here, where Tibetan juniper trees reach heights of up to 4,900 metres.	Mammals of importance include the red panda, takin, musk deer, red goral, Asiatic black bear, and leopard—species well-adapted to the region’s cold, rugged terrain.

II. North-Western Himalayan Region

The North-Western Himalayan Floristic Region extends across Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. This area experiences comparatively lower rainfall and temperatures. Altitudinal variation has a striking influence on its vegetation, which ranges from subtropical forests at lower elevations to alpine meadows near the snow line. The region displays distinct vegetation zones — subtropical (up to 1525 m), temperate (1525 m to 3650 m), and alpine (3650 m to 4575 m).

In the sub-montane zone, sal and semul trees dominate, alongside savanna-type grasslands. The temperate belt supports chir pine, oak, deodar, alder, birch, and other conifers. At higher altitudes, forests give way to alpine pastures characterised by juniper, silver fir, birch, and larch. This floristic region is classified into six distinct ecoregions.

1. Terai–Duar Savanna and Grasslands

Stretching along the Himalayan foothills, the Terai–Duar Savanna and Grasslands form a narrow lowland belt about 25 km wide. This ecoregion continues the Indo-Gangetic Plain through India, Nepal, and Bhutan — known locally as the Terai in the Ganges Basin and the Dooars in West Bengal, Bhutan, and Assam up to the Brahmaputra River. It contains some of the world’s tallest and most threatened grasslands.

Flora

Fauna

The landscape alternates between tall alluvial grasslands (up to 45 m high), tropical deciduous forests, and evergreen patches, depending on soil fertility and rainfall. Annual monsoon floods deposit nutrient-rich silt, sustaining the grasslands. Common species include jamun and cotton tree.

This ecoregion hosts diverse mammals and birds, including endangered species such as the greater one-horned rhinoceros, Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, sloth bear, and Indian leopard. National parks like Valmiki and Dudhwa in India, and Chitwan–Parsa in Nepal, are crucial tiger habitats. Grazers include deer species—barasingha, sambar, chital, hog deer, and muntjac—alongside elephants, rhinoceroses, gaurs, and nilgai. The wild water buffalo also inhabits this zone.

2. Himalayan Subtropical Pine Forests

The Himalayan Subtropical Pine Forests form vast conifer-dominated ecosystems that extend across the lower slopes of the Himalayas, spanning Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. These forests are divided by Nepal’s deep Kali Gandaki Gorge—drier in the west and denser in the east where the monsoon exerts greater influence.

Flora	Fauna
Vegetation is predominantly composed of drought-tolerant Pinus species with thick grassy ground cover, as recurrent fires prevent undergrowth. These forests thrive mainly on south-facing slopes and are common at elevations between 1,000 and 2,000 metres, particularly in Kangra, Una, eastern Himachal, and parts of western Nepal.	Though less faunally diverse than rainforests, the region supports tigers, leopards, and several Himalayan mammals. Birdlife is rich, and primates such as langurs are frequently observed within these forests.

3. Western Himalayan Broadleaf Forests

Situated across the mid-elevations of the Western Himalayas, this temperate ecoregion comprises mixed and broadleaf forests. It is generally drier and more fragmented than its eastern counterpart, though ecologically significant as part of the Himalayan altitudinal habitat mosaic. It connects subtropical pine forests at lower levels with subalpine conifer forests and high-altitude meadows above.

Flora	Fauna
The forest consists of two types: evergreen broadleaf forests, dominated by oaks on moist south-facing slopes rich in ferns, mosses, and epiphytes; and deciduous forests along rivers and drier valleys featuring Aesculus indica, Juglans regia, Alnus nepalensis, and Populus ciliata. Conifers such as Abies, Picea, Pinus, and Cedrus also flourish, particularly on northern slopes.	Home to seventy-six mammal species, this zone shelters Asiatic black bears, leopards, Himalayan tahrs, and the threatened Himalayan serow. Endemics include the Kashmir cave bat, with the near-endemic Peter’s tube-nosed bat also present.

4. Western Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests

Extending between 3,000 and 3,500 metres, the Western Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests form a key belt across Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. These forests act as vital migration corridors for seasonal Himalayan fauna. Although drier than the eastern conifer belt, they play an essential ecological role in the mountains’ biodiversity chain.

Flora	Fauna
The dominant trees include fir, spruce, cypress, juniper, deodar, pine, and yew. In some areas, Abies spectabilis forms almost pure stands, while others mix conifers with oaks and birch. Species such as Cupressus torulosa and Cedrus deodara are also common.	About fifty-eight mammal species inhabit these forests, including brown bears, Himalayan serows, tahrs, and the endangered markhor goat. The murree vole is the only endemic mammal recorded here.

5. North-Western Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows

At elevations of 3,300–3,600 metres, this ecoregion comprises montane grasslands and shrublands of the north-western Himalayas.

Flora	Fauna
Vegetation mainly includes krummholz (stunted, wind-shaped trees) and herbaceous alpine plants adapted to cold and wind exposure.	The ecoregion supports around eighty mammal species, including snow leopards, Tibetan wolves, ibex, markhor, blue sheep, tahrs, and Himalayan marmots.

6. Karakoram–West Tibetan Plateau Alpine Steppe

Located west of the main Himalayan Range, the Karakoram–West Tibetan Plateau Alpine Steppe occupies the Karakoram, Ladakh, and adjoining ranges. It is characterised by arid montane grasslands and sparse shrublands.

Flora	Fauna
Vegetation is dominated by hardy grasses and herbaceous alpine plants capable of surviving extreme cold and limited moisture.	This ecoregion provides prime habitat for snow leopards and features diverse ungulates such as Marco Polo sheep, Tibetan argali, urial, markhor, and ibex. Brown bears and Himalayan black bears are also present, making this ecosystem ecologically rich despite its harsh climate.

III. Assam Region

The Assam floristic region encompasses the entire North-Eastern region of India, including Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura. This biologically rich area features diverse bamboo and palm species and higher-altitude grasslands resembling those of the Nilgiris. The region is divided into four distinct ecoregions, each marked by unique vegetation, wildlife, and climatic conditions.

1. Brahmaputra Valley Semi-Evergreen Forests

The Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests represent a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion covering approximately 56,700 square kilometres in north-eastern India. Spanning the alluvial plains of the upper Brahmaputra River, the region extends across Assam and parts of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and southern Bhutan.

Enclosed between the Himalayas in the north and the Lushai Hills in the south, this fertile valley is replenished annually by monsoon floods (June–September), when as much as 300 cm of rainwater inundates the plains. The flooding rivers, including the Brahmaputra, Manas, and Subansiri, deposit nutrient-rich silt, making this one of the most fertile and historically cultivated landscapes in India.

Flora

Fauna

Centuries of intense cultivation have left only fragments of the original semi-evergreen forest. Typical canopy trees include evergreen species of Syzygium, Cinnamomum, and Magnoliaceae, along with deciduous trees such as Terminalia myriocarpa, Terminalia citrina, Terminalia tomentosa, and Tetrameles species.

Despite extensive habitat loss, these forests and adjoining grasslands remain home to remarkable wildlife. Species include the tiger, clouded leopard, capped langur, sloth bear, and wild water buffalo. The valley supports India’s largest population of Asian elephants and the world’s largest population of Indian rhinoceros. The upper valley slopes also host Asiatic black bears. Most of these animals are categorised as threatened or endangered.

2. Meghalaya Subtropical Forests

Covering approximately 41,700 square kilometres, the Meghalaya subtropical forests encompass not only Meghalaya but also parts of southern Assam and Nagaland near Dimapur. Despite its name, this ecoregion contains multiple habitats, with montane subtropical forests forming a key biome.

Part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, the Meghalaya forests are globally significant for their endemism and natural diversity. Together with the Western Ghats, north-eastern India represents one of India’s two rainforest-bearing regions. The terrain includes lowland tropical forests, upland grasslands, and moist broadleaf forests above 1,000 metres. Mawsynram and Cherrapunji, among the wettest places on Earth, receive up to 11 metres of annual rainfall.

Flora	Fauna
This high-elevation, moisture-rich ecoregion is a biodiversity centre for tree genera such as Magnolia and Michelia, and families including Elaeocarpaceae and Elaeagnaceae. Over 320 species of orchids are found here, while the endemic pitcher plant now faces extinction.	Home to an exceptional avifauna, the ecoregion hosts around 659 recorded bird species. Several are endemic to the Indo-Burma zone, and many are globally threatened. Critically endangered species such as the Oriental White-backed Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture require urgent protection. The forest also serves as an important corridor for migratory birds on transcontinental routes.

3. Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin Rain Forests

The Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests form a subtropical moist broadleaf ecoregion stretching across the mountainous frontiers of India, Myanmar, and Bangladesh. Encompassing the Chin Hills and Arakan Mountains in Myanmar, the Manipur and Mizoram hills in India, and the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh, the region extends north into Nagaland and eastwards across Myanmar’s Sagaing and Kachin states to the China–Myanmar border.

The ecoregion experiences a tropical, humid climate, moderated by elevation and influenced heavily by the Bay of Bengal monsoon, bringing annual rainfall of up to 2,000 mm.

Flora	Fauna
Semi-evergreen rainforests dominate approximately 36% of this ecoregion, supported by smaller pockets of tropical wet evergreen, moist deciduous, montane wet temperate, and subtropical montane forests. Nearly 19% of the landscape has been cleared for agriculture, while a further 34% comprises degraded areas due to shifting cultivation.	About 149 species of mammals have been identified, including two near-endemic species—Pipistrellus joffrei (a bat) and Hadromys humei (a murid rodent). Endangered animals like the tiger, clouded leopard, Asian elephant, Eld’s deer, gaur, Himalayan goral, and red panda also inhabit these forests, reflecting the region’s ecological significance.

4. Northeast India–Myanmar Pine Forests

The Northeast India–Myanmar pine forests constitute a montane subtropical coniferous ecoregion stretching through the mountains of Nagaland, Mizoram, and adjoining Myanmar. These forests occur between 1,500 and 2,500 metres in altitude in three distinct enclaves—the largest straddling the India–Myanmar border in Nagaland, and the smaller two situated in southern Mizoram.

Flora	Fauna
Unlike the surrounding rainforests, these pine forests form a distinct high-altitude habitat within the Indomalayan realm. Tenasserim pine dominates lower elevations, occasionally mixed with dipterocarps, while Khasi pine and blue pine appear at higher, cooler elevations alongside hemlocks, firs, oaks, and maples.	Although less diverse than nearby rainforests, the pine forests remain ecologically intact and vital for several upland species. Large mammals include the red serow, sambar, Indian muntjac, wild boar, and Asiatic black bear. Smaller inhabitants include Oriental giant squirrels, Indian giant flying squirrels, and civets, all of which depend on this relatively undisturbed habitat for survival.

IV & V. The Indus-Gangetic Plain

The flora of the Gangetic Plain has been profoundly altered by human settlement and agricultural activities. Despite these changes, the region’s vegetation varies dramatically—from the semi-arid scrubs of the Aravalli hills to the evergreen mangroves of the Sundarbans delta. Sal and Arjun trees found in the Tarai regions of Bihar and West Bengal represent remnants of the ancient natural vegetation.

In Uttar Pradesh, dry deciduous forests predominate, gradually transitioning to moist deciduous varieties across Bihar and West Bengal. Common tree species include sheesham, neem, mahua, jamun, acacia, ber, and bel. The region also supports a wide range of grasses, marking high floristic diversity. Ecologically, the Gangetic Plain can be divided into six distinct ecoregions:

1. North-Western Thorn Scrub Forests

Presently referred to as the Aravalli West Thorn Scrub Forests, this xeric shrubland ecoregion once supported expansive deciduous forests. Intensive agriculture and timber extraction have degraded it to sparse thorny scrub. The climate ranges from hot semi-arid (Köppen BSh) to arid (BWh), with scorching summers and cool, dry winters. Annual rainfall averages between 500 and 600 mm, peaking during the monsoon months (July–August) with frequent thunderstorms, cloudbursts, and flash floods.

Flora	Fauna
Dominant vegetation includes Acacia senegal, Acacia leucophloea, Prosopis cineraria, Capparis zeylanica, alongside species of Salvadora, Gymnosporia, Grewia, and Gardenia.	Although much of the forest has been cleared, large mammals such as leopards, chinkara, blackbuck, and chousingha persist. Two endemic bat species—Triaenops persicus and the small mouse-tailed bat—are also found here.

2. Upper Gangetic Plains Moist Deciduous Forests

This tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf ecoregion occupies the fertile alluvial plains of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, covering approximately 263,100 square kilometres across Uttar Pradesh and parts of Uttarakhand, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and Bihar. Major cities like Delhi, Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Gwalior, and Varanasi lie within this zone, though only about one percent of its area is protected.

Flora	Fauna
Historically, the region was dominated by moist deciduous forests where trees shed leaves during the dry winter season. Sal (Shorea robusta) is the principal species, forming canopies of up to 25–35 metres in mature stands.	Seventy-nine mammal species have been recorded, including large animals that once freely roamed here—tigers, elephants, rhinos, wild buffaloes, swamp deer, and sloth bears. Small populations of tigers, elephants, and chousingha still survive in isolated forest pockets at the foot of the Himalayas.

3. Lower Gangetic Plains Moist Deciduous Forests

The Lower Gangetic Plains form one of the most densely populated regions on Earth. Originally a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest zone covering about 254,100 square kilometres, much of it has now been replaced by intensive agriculture, with roughly 2.76% of its area protected. The climate is tropical and humid, with the majority of annual rainfall falling during the southwest monsoon (June–September).

Flora	Fauna
The forest structure features deciduous trees forming the upper canopy and evergreen trees in the understorey. Frequently disturbed forests are dominated by Bombax ceiba, Albizia procera, Duabanga sonneratioides, and Sterculia villosa. In untouched areas, sal becomes predominant, although most forests never reach their climax stage due to continued human activities.	This ecoregion supports 126 native mammal species, including endangered ones such as the tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, sloth bear, chousingha, smooth-coated otter, and great Indian civet.

4. Sundarbans Freshwater Swamp Forests

Located behind the mangrove zone, the Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests represent the transitional brackish wetland belt where salinity decreases significantly during the monsoon season. Freshwater inputs from the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers push saltwater outwards, depositing fertile silt and rejuvenating the ecosystem.

Flora

Dominant species include Heritiera minor, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala, and Avicennia officinalis, with Pandanus tectorius, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Nipa fruticans lining creek banks.

5. Sundarbans Mangroves

Forming the seaward fringe of the delta, the Sundarbans Mangroves constitute the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem. Characterised by thick canopies and dense seedling growth, these forests play a vital ecological and economic role.

Flora	Fauna
The dominant mangrove tree Heritiera fomes—locally known as sundri or sundari—is the hallmark species. Other prevalent trees include Avicennia, Xylocarpus mekongensis, Xylocarpus granatum, Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops decandra, Aegiceras corniculatum, Rhizophora mucronata, and Nypa fruticans palms.	While plant diversity is limited, fauna such as estuarine crocodiles, otters, and spotted deer inhabit this wetland ecosystem, which remains an important refuge for the Bengal tiger.

6. Thar Desert

The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, spans roughly 200,000 square kilometres and forms a natural frontier between India and Pakistan. Its arid, subtropical climate features extreme temperature variations—from near freezing in winter to over 50°C in summer—and annual rainfall between 100 and 500 mm during the short monsoon season (July to September).

Flora	Fauna
Vegetation is sparse and mainly composed of north-western thorn scrub forests scattered in small open clumps that grow denser eastward as rainfall increases. Characteristic species include hardy trees, shrubs, and herbs that withstand severe heat and limited moisture.	Despite its harsh conditions, the Thar supports rich wildlife such as blackbuck, chinkara, and the Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur), particularly in the Rann of Kutch region.

VI. Deccan Region

Covering most of Peninsular India, this vast floristic region is marked by the presence of teak, tendu, sal, palm, and a variety of thorny shrubs. It is classified into eleven distinctive ecoregions, each defined by unique climatic, floral, and faunal characteristics.

1. Khathiar–Gir Dry Deciduous Forests

The Khathiar–Gir dry deciduous forests form a largely arid ecoregion in north-western India, spanning around 267,000 square kilometres across Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. These forests are dominated by teak, with thorny trees and scrub thriving in drier sections. The ecoregion includes the Aravalli Range, whose highest point, Mount Abu, rises to 1,721 metres, as well as parts of the north-western thorn scrub forests and the Kathiawar Peninsula.

This region experiences a tropical monsoon climate, with 550–700 mm of annual rainfall—mostly during the June to September south-west monsoon—while temperatures often surpass 40°C. The higher ranges of the Aravallis remain cooler and receive more precipitation, creating diverse habitats ranging from dry scrub to sparse deciduous forests.

Flora	Fauna
Arid areas are dominated by Anogeissus pendula, often accompanied by khair, especially on quartzite ridges and gneiss outcrops. Less arid parts contain teak, bael, and the silk-cotton tree (Sterculia urens). Mount Abu features dry deciduous forests, transitioning to conifers at higher elevations, while Acacia senegal dominates thorn-scrub regions.	Notable bird species include the endangered great Indian bustard, lesser florican, and the near-endemic white-naped tit, which inhabits thorny scrub landscapes.

2. Narmada Valley Dry Deciduous Forests

The Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests, a tropical dry forest ecoregion, extend across central India—primarily in Madhya Pradesh—with portions in Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh. Covering about 169,900 square kilometres, the region encompasses the lower Narmada River valley and neighbouring uplands of the Vindhya and Satpura Ranges.

The Narmada Valley experiences a sharply seasonal rainfall pattern, receiving 1,200–1,500 mm during the monsoon, followed by a prolonged dry season lasting seven to eight months. Trees shed their leaves during the arid months to conserve moisture.

Flora	Fauna
The typical three-tiered vegetation structure includes a 15–25 metre upper canopy dominated by teak, a mid-layer of smaller trees such as coromandel ebony and dhaora, and an understorey of shrubs.	Home to 76 species of mammals, including Bengal tiger, gaur, dhole, sloth bear, chousingha, and blackbuck—many of which are threatened due to habitat loss.

3. Chhota Nagpur Dry Deciduous Forests

The Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests form a tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf ecoregion across the plateau of Jharkhand, extending into Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Spanning about 122,100 square kilometres, the region is generally drier than adjacent moist forest zones.

Flora	Fauna
Sal (Shorea robusta) is the predominant species, covering extensive tracts of the plateau.	The region includes the Palamau Tiger Reserve and other significant habitats supporting dense populations of tigers and Asian elephants.

4. Eastern Highlands Moist Deciduous Forests

Also called the East Deccan moist deciduous forests, this ecoregion covers approximately 341,100 square kilometres, stretching across Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Telangana.

Flora	Fauna
Sal dominates in association with Terminalia, Toona, Adina, Syzygium, and Buchanania, resembling the flora of the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.	This region supports tigers, wolves, dholes, sloth bears, and herbivores such as gaur, chinkara, and blackbuck, though the Asian elephant has become locally extinct.

5. Northern Dry Deciduous Forests

Now referred to as the North Deccan dry deciduous forests, this ecoregion spreads across around 58,200 square kilometres, mainly in western Odisha and parts of Chhattisgarh. It lies within the dry rain shadow of the Eastern Ghats and the middle basin of the Mahanadi River.

Flora	Fauna
Original forests were multi-layered, largely dominated by sal and teak in surviving patches.	With 68 native mammals, the region supports tigers, dholes, sloth bears, and chousinghas among its threatened species.

6. Deccan Thorn Scrub Forests

A xeric shrubland ecoregion of southern India, the Deccan thorn scrub forests are remnants of once extensive dry deciduous forests.

Flora	Fauna
Vegetation mainly consists of open woodland with thorny, drought-resistant trees and xerophytic shrubs.	Habitat for the great Indian bustard and blackbuck, although populations have declined. Nearly 350 bird species have been documented here.

7. Odisha Semi-Evergreen Forests

Located along the coastal plains of Odisha, this tropical moist broadleaf ecoregion covers about 8,600 square kilometres, transitioning between moist deciduous forests and mangrove ecosystems.

Flora	Fauna
Common species include Artocarpus, Michelia, Bridelia, Ficus, and Mangifera.	Despite human alteration, larger wildlife like tigers, elephants, and gaur still persist, though under increasing conservation concern.

8. Central Deccan Plateau Dry Deciduous Forests

Stretching across Maharashtra and Telangana, with extensions into Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh, this ecoregion encompasses the Vidarbha region, including Nagpur and Hyderabad.

Flora	Fauna
Hardwickia binata and Albizia amara dominate, differing from the sal and teak forests prevalent elsewhere.	Home to antelopes such as chinkara and four-horned species, as well as gaur and wild water buffalo.

9. South Deccan Plateau Dry Deciduous Forests

Located in the southernmost part of the Deccan Plateau, these forests lie in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats, receiving rainfall mainly during the south-west monsoon.

Flora	Fauna
Key species include Acacia catechu and Albizia amara. Teak, sal, semal, and sandalwood are economically important.	Inhabited by 75 species of mammals, including Indian elephants, sloth bears, wild dogs, and the grizzled giant squirrel, which is critically endangered.

10. East Deccan Dry Evergreen Forests

Found along India’s south-eastern coast behind the Coromandel Coast, this ecoregion extends across eastern Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and south-eastern Andhra Pradesh.

Flora	Fauna
These forests blend evergreen understorey species with taller deciduous canopies, featuring Albizia amara and Chloroxylon swietenia.	Includes species such as sloth bear, Indian spotted chevrotain, and dhole.

11. Godavari–Krishna Mangroves

Stretching along India’s eastern coast, the Godavari–Krishna mangroves cover about 7,000 square kilometres, with key concentrations in the deltas of the Godavari and Krishna rivers.

Flora	Fauna
The mangrove vegetation consists of Avicennia marina, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., and Suaeda spp., forming dense canopies and shrubby undergrowth.	These mangroves serve as vital refuges for wildlife, including saltwater crocodiles that thrive in the nutrient-rich estuarine mix of fresh and seawater.

VII. Malabar Region

Extending along India’s western coastline from the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay) to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari), this region features diverse vegetation ranging from tropical moist evergreen to broadleaf mixed and monsoon deciduous forests. The higher elevations of the Nilgiri Hills are characterised by temperate forests, while numerous plant species trace their origin to the Malay region. Ecologically, this floristic zone is divided into five distinct ecoregions.

1. Malabar Coast Moist Forests

The Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion located along southwestern India. Stretching in a narrow belt between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats, it spans around 35,500 square kilometres from northern Maharashtra through Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala to Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu.

This coastal belt runs from sea level up to about 250 metres and borders the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests in Maharashtra and Karnataka, and the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests in Kerala. It is one of India’s most densely populated regions, home to major cities such as Mumbai, Mormugao, Margao, Mangalore, Kochi, Kozhikode, and Thiruvananthapuram.

Flora	Fauna
Initially covered by tropical evergreen rainforests, the region now features patches of deciduous vegetation, largely replaced or mixed with teak plantations that shed their leaves during the dry winter season.	Ninety-seven mammal species are native to this ecoregion. However, extensive human activity and fragmentation have limited habitats for larger mammals such as the Asian elephant, tiger, sloth bear, gaur, and dhole. In many areas, elephants and tigers have vanished but continue to survive in adjoining parts of the Western Ghats.

2. North Western Ghats Moist Deciduous Forests

Covering the northern sector of the Western Ghats (Sahyadri Range), this ecoregion extends across south-eastern Gujarat, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. It occupies elevations between 250 and 1,000 metres, surrounding the montane rainforests that lie above 1,000 metres.

Encompassing about 48,200 square kilometres, the region is bounded by the Malabar Coast moist forests to the west and by dry deciduous forests along the Narmada Valley to the north. Towards the east, the rain shadow of the Ghats transitions into the Deccan thorn scrub forests and the South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests, marking the semi-arid landscapes of peninsular India.

3. North Western Ghats Montane Rain Forests

The montane rain forests of the North Western Ghats form a tropical moist broadleaf ecoregion stretching down the spine of the Western Ghats from southern Gujarat through Daman, Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. These forests, covering approximately 30,900 square kilometres, are found above 1,000 metres elevation, surrounded by moist deciduous forests at lower altitudes.

Flora

Unlike the lowland deciduous forests, these montane forests are predominantly evergreen laurel forests. Species such as Litsea, Phoebe, and Cinnamomum dominate the vegetation, creating dense, aromatic canopies enriched with biodiversity found nowhere else in India.

4. South Western Ghats Montane Rain Forests

Situated across Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, the South Western Ghats montane rain forests occupy altitudes from 1,000 to 2,695 metres and cover roughly 22,600 square kilometres. This region boasts the richest biodiversity in peninsular India, harbouring numerous endemic species.

Nearly two-thirds of the original forest cover has been cleared, leaving only about 15% intact and protected—roughly 3,200 square kilometres. The area includes Anamudi, Kerala’s highest peak at 2,695 metres. High levels of rainfall, exceeding 2,800 mm annually, are recorded here due to the South-West and North-East monsoon winds. These forests form the wettest region in southern India, bordered by drier ecoregions to the east and north.

5. South Western Ghats Moist Deciduous Forests

Covering around 23,800 square kilometres across Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests extend between 250 and 1,000 metres elevation. These forests encompass the Nilgiri Hills, Agastyamalai, Anamalai, and Palani Hills, acting as a bridge between the Malabar Coast forests to the west and the dry Deccan Plateau ecoregions to the east.

Flora	Fauna
Many trees in this zone shed their leaves during the dry season, giving the forests a distinctive, seasonally changing appearance.	There are eighty-nine native mammal species, including tigers, Asian elephants, gaur, Nilgiri langur, dholes (Asiatic wild dogs), and sloth bears. These forests provide essential habitats for India’s key wildlife species and are vital for ecological stability across the Western Ghats.

VIII. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are blanketed by dense equatorial evergreen forests rich in heavy hardwood species. The Nicobar Islands experience a typical tropical rainforest climate, with average temperatures ranging between 22°C and 30°C. Annual rainfall varies from 3,000 to 3,800 mm, largely received during the southwest monsoon (May to September) and the northeast monsoon (October to December).

Flora	Fauna
The islands support diverse plant communities, featuring mangroves and coastal forests along the shores, while the interiors are dominated by lush evergreen and deciduous forests.	The region is home to 25 native mammal species, primarily bats and rats. Larger mammals include the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and the *Nicobar macaque. Notably, four species found here are endemic to the islands, highlighting their ecological uniqueness.

For More Readings: NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA | Agri UDAAN | SOIL CONSERVATION